Gene Liptak

Bill Hornbaker

Zoë Smith

November 14, 2002

An Annotated Bibliography for the Use of Information Technology by Scientists and Academics

This article is an argument in favor of what the authors call a “collaboratory.” As defined by Wulf, a collaboratory is a “...center without walls, in which the nation’s researchers can perform their research without regard to geographical location - interacting with colleagues, accessing instrumentation, sharing data and computational resource, and accessing information in digital libraries.” The article presents timely and continuing research into modern solutions to collaborative problems in the scientific communities. Among the problems to be overcome are spatial distances, restricted resources and the poor state of the technology thus far presented for collaboration. The authors summarize current technological advancements in virtual communities and facilitating software for real-time multimedia interactions. Though the authors point out a lack of current acceptance, it is generally believed that as the technologies evolve and become better tailored to the social behaviors of collaboration, as described in Kraut, Egido and Galegher, they will become as ubiquitous as the proverbial chalkboard. This is an excellent article for becoming acquainted with current research in adapting information technologies to better aid scientists and engineers in their collaborations.

Conceptual Framework

Harris, R. and Dewdney, P. (1994). Information transfer failures, or why it's so hard to

locate the information you need and Theory and research on information seeking in Barriers to Information: How Formal Help Systems Fail Battered Women. Westport, CN: Greenwood Press.

Using a feminist viewpoint, Information Transfer Failures focuses on the information aspects of the barriers encountered by battered women who make contact with the human services network. Roadblocks include not knowing the exact information one is looking for, where to locate it, that information relevant to the problem is available, or the information needed is nonexistent. Information transfer failures occur when seekers confuse helpers about the type of information they seek. Theory and Research on Information Seeking states that library and information science's primary concern is the nature, organization, dissemination, and uses of information in various contexts. LIS has been focused on information systems and services rather than on the users or uses of information. The three information seeking models of De Paulo, Krikelas, and Dervin are described in detail.

Study & Evaluation of Information

Applegate, R. (1993) Models of user satisfaction: understanding false positives.

Reference Quarterly, 32 (4), 525-39.

This article examines the problem of false positives in context models of user satisfaction. When a literature search is conducted, 3 models of satisfaction are salient in the fields of library and information science, computer systems, marketing, and psychology (as discovered by the author). The models are as follows: Material Satisfaction Model which reflects the satisfaction of the product used and asks the question, has the users question been answered by the system. This model discounts emotional satisfaction; Emotional Satisfaction Model attempts to measure the users’ actual feelings of satisfaction rather than inferring “satisfaction” is present; the third model is the Emotional Satisfaction Model-multiple path. This model relies on 3 variables: disconfirmation, product setting and product performance. The author states simply the importance of librarians to recognize the detriment of using Yes/No questions or questionnaires to determine user satisfaction. Users are often silenced by the false positive effects of simple questions and instead are encouraged to use personal questioning that includes open-ending, probing questions.

Information Channels

Kraut, R. E., Egido, C., Galegher, J. (1990). Patterns of contact and communication in

scientific research collaborations. In Kraut, R. E., Egido, C., Galegher, J. (Ed.) Intellectual Teamwork: Social and Technological Foundations of Cooperative Works (pp. 149-172). Hillsdale, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

This is a very detailed exposition into the patterns of collaboration among scientists. The authors begin with an analysis of the actual benefits of collaboration. The authors then examine the spatial relations which facilitate and coincide with collaborations. Through their research, the authors draw upon spatial proximity as an integral factor in collaboration. This is because proximity allows frequent, high-quality, low-cost communication. The authors build from these qualities a framework for technologies which compliments the manners in which collaborators work most efficiently. Being current through 1990, this work presents an antiquated view of technology. However, this is a useful resource in understanding the process by which technologies may be evaluated and designed within sociological parameters.

Information Barriers

Michel, J. (1982). Linguistic and political barriers in the international transfer of

information in science and technology. Journal of Information Science, 5, 131-35.

Discusses how different languages prevent a complete sharing of information. Solutions must be sought with the standardization of terminology, multilingualism of journals, learning several languages, and development of translation activities. The free flow of information across national borders has risks including cultural alienation, economic imbalance, and countries that import, not export information. To overcome political barriers, information exchanges and interdependent links must be developed.

Information Quality

Patrick, D.J. (1993). Assessing the quality of information technology. EDUCOM

Review, 28 (2), 7-8.

Diane Patrick from the University of Maryland writes an interesting and pertinent editorial issues involving assessing the quality of information technology based on John Gehl’s article, “How to Count a Computer.” The question of how to assess computing on university campuses involves much more than simply counting computers, operating systems, and application programs. In order to tell whether an environment encourages or discourages the use of technology, the quality of the information environment needs to be assessed. The quality of an information environment also indicates what users are doing with the technology; this is an important indicator of whether transformation or progress is taking place. Universities have long made important funding decisions on the projected impact technologies will have on instruction and communication, but there has been no actual measure of whether there is any truth to the predictions. Patrick concludes with a recommendation for universities and academic computing centers to track and document transformation and evolutionary change.

Sharing

Chatman, E. A. (1996). The impoverished life-world of outsiders. Journal of the

American Society for Information Science, 47(3), 193-206.

Chapman presents a well-written article on her model of insiders and outsider and how they share information inside the groups and between the groups. She discusses previous studies she has conducted and applies various theories to them. For instance, in a study on aging women in a retirement home, she applies the social network theory. Although Chapman describes her previous studies well, it may behoove the reader to read in full this work she draws from so often in this article. Drawing from her research on janitors, aging women, and single mothers, Chapman creates a framework of outsiders, or the information impoverished, and insiders. The mere existence of these groups creates a barrier to information seeking behavior. Chapman concludes that the profession of researchers has only just begun serve the needs of specialized populations and there remains much work to be done.

Erdelez, S. and Rioux, K., (2000). Sharing tools on newspaper web sites: An exploratory

study. Online Information Review, 3, 218-228.

An evaluation showed that web site based sharing tools are not used very much. The variance in appearance of sharing tools contributes to the current lack of adoption among users. Placement, wording, and instructions of the tools are inconsistent. Suggestions for improvement include a preview section, additional instructions, a note addressing privacy, and that senders should be able to customize their own messages.

Kovacs, D. K., Robinson, K. L., & Dixon, J. (1995). Scholarly e-conference on the

academic networks: How library and information science professional use them. Journal of the American Society for Information Science, 64, 244-254.

Kovacs et al. qualitative study on the benefits of e-conference information professionals, while well-designed and interesting is outdated for those researchers wanting to explore more recent findings on the impact of collaborative technologies. The study found that to many of the participants the technology was new, thus creating a possible barrier for the study itself. The overall results indicated that many library professional are using e-conferences and that through them they are able to share more information with their colleague’s faster through formal and informal means of communication.

Spies, P. (2001). Key barriers to international resource sharing and OCLC actions to help

remove them. Interlending & Document Supply, 4, 169-174.

Barriers that hinder attempts for an efficient interlibrary loan system on a global scale include internet search engines that do not identify individual items within massive library resources online, character sets and language handicaps, and that not all the books online are cataloged the same. OCLC is working to overcome these barriers with technological improvements, altered governance structure, and worldwide forums.

Sharing among scientists

Poland, J. M. (1991). Informal communication among scientists and engineers. Science

and Technology Libraries, 11 (3), 61-73.

This article is an excellent review of important works in the field of science and engineering communications from 1960 to 1990. The sources reviewed by Poland are mostly bibliographies of work done by previous researchers on this topic. As such, Poland’s evaluative descriptions may lead future researchers to appropriate resources for bibliographic information. Though published in 1991, Poland does include references to the applications of more modern forms of information technology by scientists and engineers. One can see an evolving system of use of information channels and technologies through Poland’s selection of citations.

Stewart, J. G. (1996). User acceptance of electronic journals: Interviews with chemists

at Cornell University. College & Research Libraries 57, 339-349.

This article describes a research project designed to assess the usability of an early form of full text electronic journal by a group of chemists at Cornell University. This article presents the data from two perspectives: the first, to explore the potential of electronic journals in the roles of traditional scholarly materials; and the second, to interpret the responses of the interviewees in such a way as to better design future systems. Stewart concluded that a majority of users would find a full text electronic journal useful, but that electronic journals in their present forms can not replace print copies. It was important to the interviewees to be able to print a copy for their personal tactile use. This study indicates that the chemists interviewed would prefer multiple sources of information. Beyond the scope of Stewart’s immediate research, this article can continue as a template for future design of systems in which the format of electronic publications may be a novelty to its users.

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