Smita Joshipura
IRLS 501
Final Project
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Intellectual Organization of
Information: Principles and Challenges
Abstract:
Information is a product of human mind and is meant for use
by others for various purposes. Institutions like libraries, museums, archives
etc. organizes information so that it can be retrieved easily and used
effectively by everyone. The article discusses one of the most important
retrieval tools, “Catalog” which is a collection of surrogate records. It is
considered to be a mirror of the library since it reflects the holding of the
library to its users. The Catalog is a vital access mechanism, which began
centuries ago with handwritten entries of manuscripts. In 1970’s digital
catalogs, also known as machine-based bibliographic records or Online Public
Access Catalog (OPAC) emerged. The latter form has potential to overcome the
limitations of the earlier forms of library catalog. The article highlights the
first codification of library catalog rules by Charles Cutter as well as “
Finally, the article compares the functions of the digital libraries
with the traditional library. It explains how the new techniques are more
complex for the user as well as for the staff, who requires additional
training, assistance and help. The
article summarizes the role of libraries and information professionals in a
digital library environment, key challenges confronted by libraries and the
future of Cataloging with respect to ongoing developments in digital
technologies.
Introduction:
Information is all around us. It is a product of human mind, and is meant for use by others for various purposes. Productive transfer of information and absorption of the same by a user is dependent on intellectual organization of information. Information and knowledge are the lifeblood of society and to make it more useful to the society, it needs to be structured and organized. According to Konigner and Janowitz, 1995, “Information is only valuable to the extent that it is structured. Because of a lack of structure in the creation, distribution and reception of information, the information does not arrive where it is needed and therefore, is useless.” To make the information more valuable to the users and society in general, it needs to be organized systematically. There are various institutions like Libraries, Museums, and Archives etc., which organize information so that it can be retrieved easily, and used effectively by everyone. Moreover, there are various retrieval tools in the library like Bibliographies, Catalogs, Indices, Finding Aids, Registers, etc which help in retrieving recorded information. Retrieval tools are surrogate records, which provide description of individual pieces of information.
Catalog:
“Catalog” is a collection
of surrogate records and is one of the most important retrieval tools. It is a
“list of the documents in a library, with the entries representing the
documents arranges for access in some systematic order”. (Rowley, P.246) It is very vital to create a catalog for organizing a
larger collection, which helps in the effective retrieval process. Thus, Library Cataloging is a practice of organizing a collection of
bibliographic items, which help to identify, locate, access and use of recorded
information. It is considered to be a mirror of the library as it reflects the
holdings of the library to its users.
In a library, each entry in the catalog is the representation of a
bibliographic record. A bibliographic record is a transcription of the complete
cataloging information for any item. The process of bibliographic record is:
·
To
provide all the information necessary to describe an item accurately both
physically and intellectually, which distinguish it from other items.
·
To
provide its location in the collection.
Thus, in a Catalog any user can find two important pieces of information
i.e. whether the library has the item required, and, if so, where it is located
in the collection.
Functions:
Charles Ammi Cutter systematically
defined the functions of the Catalog. Charles Cutter’s Rules for a Printed
Dictionary Catalog (1876) is regarded as the first codification of
library cataloging rules. This code is remarkable since it has covered not only
the objectives (objects) but also the methods (means) of creating catalog
entries to provide easy access of library materials. Cutter’s objectives and
methods were:
Objects
1. To enable a person to find a book of which,
any one of the followings is known
·
(A) the
author
·
(B) the
title
·
(C) the
subject
2. To show what the library has
·
(D) by a
given author
·
(E) on a
given subject
·
(F) in a
given kind of literature
3. To assist in the choice of a book
·
(G) as
to its edition (bibliographically)
·
(H) as
to its character (literary or topical)
Means
1. Author-entry with the necessary references
(for A and D)
2. Title-entry or title-references (for B)
3. Subject-entry, cross references, and classed
subject table (for C and E)
4. Form-entry (for F)
5. Giving edition and imprint, with notes when
necessary (for G)
6. Notes (for H)
This code has extended “Corporate authorship” and “Uniformity” in cataloging.
He also made rules for “Subject Cataloging”, “Filing” of entries as well as
“Description” of items. Cutter’s classic analysis is still widely accepted and
these principles are the foundation of best cataloging practice.
Thus, according to Cutter’s objects, the Catalog acts as an efficient
instrument and has provided the basis of the Cataloging functions such as:
1. Identification (Cutter’s Object: to enable a
person to find a book when a title or author or subject is known)
2. Collocation: (Cutter’s Object: to show what
the library has by a given author, on a given subject, and in a given kind of
literature)
3. Evaluation: (Cutter’s Object: to assist in a
choice of a book as to the edition and as to it’s character (literary or
topical)
4. Location
Code of Cataloging:
In the 20th century, American
Library Association (ALA) published a Code of Cataloging in two parts, which was a complex code and raised
criticism in the library world. The code was based on the Legalistic theory,
the most important theory among other theories of cataloging like the
Perfectionist, the Bibliographic and the Pragmatic. According to the Legalistic
theory, there must be rules and definitions for issues as well as there must be
authority to settle these issues. Due to a few weaknesses in this theory,
Osborn criticized
Cataloging Process:
Over and above the functions of the library catalog, which was based on Paris Principles like identification, location, finding and collocation, “Bibliographic Control”, is equally important function of the library catalog. It is a process of describing the information and providing name, title, and subject access to the description. The process of bibliographic control includes Descriptive cataloging, Subject cataloging, Authority control and Physical Processing of an item.
Cataloging Process
│
│───────────
│────────│
Descriptive Cataloging Subject
Cataloging
│ │
│─Description │─Classification
│ │
│─Choice
of entry │─Subject
heading
│
│─Form of entry
Descriptive Cataloging
is a process where the cataloger’s
primary task is
1. To describe and identify library material.
2. To provide name and title access points to
the bibliographic record.
Access Points
↓ Bibliographic
Description
025.3
Kao, Mary Liu. ↓
Cataloging and classification for library technicians /
Mary L. Kao. –
2nd ed.—
145 p.; 22 cm. – (
Includes bibliographic
references (p.139-149) and index.
ISBN 0789010631 (pbk: alk.paper)
1. Cataloging—United States. 2.
Classification-
Books.
I. Title. II. Series.
There are various tools used to process the
Descriptive Cataloging like AACR2R, 1998; Library of Congress Rule
Interpretations (LCRI); Library of Congress Name Authority File (NAF) etc.
Moreover, AACR2R is a set of principles used for descriptive cataloging.
Structure
of a Catalog
To carry out these functions, the structure of the catalog should
contain
·
At least
one entry for each book cataloged, and
·
More
than one entry relating to any book, whenever it is necessary from the user’s
perspective or because of the characteristics of the book, for example when the
author is known by more than one name or whether the name of the author is not
on the title-page of the book or when there are several authors sharing the
creation of the book.
·
The
entries should be of different kinds such as main entries, added entries or
references.
e.g.
Main entry record of a book:
658.054
O’Brien, James A., 1936-
O13c Computers in business management: an
intro-
1979
-duction
/ James A. O’Brien. – Rev. ed.-
Xiv, 497 p. :ill. ; 25 cm. – (The Irwin
Series in information and decision sciences)
bibliography: p. 488-489.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-256-02121-X
1. Business-Data Processing. I. Title
Added Entry
BUSINESS-DATA
PROCESSING
658.054
O’Brien, James A., 1936-
O13c
Computers in business management: an intro-
1980
duction
/ James A. O’Brien. – Rev. ed.-
Xiv, 497 p.: ill. ; 25 cm. – (The Irwin
Series in information and decision sciences)
Bibliography: p. 488-489.
Includes index.
ISBN 0-256-02121-X
Business-Data Processing. I.
Title
The structure of a bibliographic record has two major components: Bibliographic Description and Access Points. Bibliographic Description contains description and identification of the item, and is divided into eight areas like title, edition, type of publication, etc. Once the Bibliographic Description is identified, cataloger provides access points to the bibliographic description. Names, titles, and name/titles are considered to be Access Points of an item. Mainly there are two types of Access points, Main Entry and Added Entries. Main Entry is the primary Access Points to a bibliographic record while Added Entries are secondary Access Points to the bibliographic record. There are also AACR2R principles based on Paris Principles for determining the Main Entry which are as follows:
·
Personal
Main entry:
1.
When
there is a single author, Main Entry is under a single author.
2.
If it is
a collection of works by a single author, Main Entry is under single author.
3.
If 2 or
3 authors are responsible for the work, and if the principal author is
indicated, Main Entry will be under the principal author.
4.
If the
principal author is not indicated, the first name indicated will be considered
as the principal author.
e.g.
Principal author indicated
Haynes, Connie.
Speed, strength, and stamina:
conditioning for tennis/ by Connie Haynes, Eve Kraft and John Conroy;
illustrated by George James.
I. Kraft, Eve. II. Conroy, John, 1908- III. Title
·
Choice
of Corporate body Main Entry:
When the work involves corporate
body, the Main Entry is under a corporate body i.e. when the work is the
expression of the corporate thought or activity of the body (e.g. official
reports etc.) (
e.g.
AIAA Communications Satellite Systems Conference
(7th: 1978:
A collection of technical
papers: AIAA 7th
Communications Satellite Systems Conference,
I. Title.
·
Choice
of Title Main Entry:
Main Entry will be under the
title when the personal author is unknown or work does not identify by
corporate body or consists of collection of independent works by different
persons.
e.g.
Contributors, Julian Mates…
[et al.]
I. Mates, Julian, 1927-
·
Choice
of Main Entry under Uniform Title: When the work is published under a different
title, Main Entry will be under the uniform title.
e.g.
Arabian nights. English.
More fairy tales from the
Arabian nights /
Edited and arranges by
J.D. Batten.
Over and above the Main Entry, other
Access Points are called, “Added Entries”.
“Added Entries” consist of personal name, personal name and title, corporate
body, corporate body and title, uniform title, etc. These are the cardinal
principles of Cataloging though “Main Entry” has raised controversy in modern
times.
Subject Cataloging
is a process where the
Cataloger’s primary task is:
1. To analyze an item for primary and secondary
subject content.
2. To assign standardized subject headings to
classify the item by assigning standardized class number.
↓Classification
(Numerical Subject Access)
025.3 Kao,Mary
Cataloging and classification for library technicians /
Mary L. Kao. --
2nd ed.—
145 p.; 22 cm. – (
Includes bibliographical references
(p.139-140) and index.
ISBN 0789010631 (pbk: alk. paper)
1. Cataloging—United States. 2. Classification—Books.
I. Title. II. Series. ↑
Subject
Headings (Verbal Subject Headings/Analysis)
Some
of the Subject Cataloging tools are Library of Congress Subject Headings;
Classification system like Library of Congress (LC) and Dewey Decimal
Classification (DDC), Library of Congress Subject Authority File etc.
There are two processes involved in Subject Cataloging: Classification
and Subject Headings.
Classification (Numerical
Subject Access) scheme is an orderly distribution of the universe into groups
of main subjects and classes. Some of the classification schemes commonly used
among the libraries is Dewey Decimal Classification (DDC), Universal Decimal
Classification (UDC), and Library of Congress Classification (LCC).
Subject Headings or
Verbal Subject Headings/Analysis is a process of assigning Subject Headings of
a document. To carry out this process a master list of preferred term is used
to assign to the documents. For example, Library of Congress Subject Headings
(LCSH) is one such list.
“Classification” is a very important function of Information
Organization. Collection in libraries is arranged according to some system, and
this arrangement is referred as, “Classification”. It provides a formal, and
orderly access to the shelves. The ultimate aim of any classification system is
to lead the user to the item required. It is a part of the process of
Cataloging, which is usually the first process following receipt of the
materials in the library. Thus, the Subject Cataloging is one of the processes
of Information Organization, which can be carried out by Verbal Subject
Heading/Analysis and Library Classification.
The principles of Subject Cataloging are based on Cutter’s rules of
subject headings in a dictionary catalog. On the basis of identification and
collocation functions for the library Cataloging, Cutter set forth his
principles for subject entry which includes:
1. The user and Usage:
Based on the principles, the
cataloger should consider the convenience of the user, and terms should be
selected accordingly.
2. Uniform and Unique
Headings:
Based on this principle, for a
subject with more than one name e.g. Gas and Petrol, one term must be
selected. Under the principle of unique
headings, some term should not be used for more than one subject, and
classification must be made when the same term is used in different disciplines
e.g. Pyrethrum (Insecticide) and Pyrethrum (Plant).
3. Specific and Direct
Entry:
According to this principle,
subject heading formed must be the most specific as possible e.g. American
religions: Literary sources and documents will be under Religion and not under
Literature or History.
4. Consistent and
Current Terminology:
Based on this principle, heading
should be both consistent and current.
5. Cross References: Three types of cross references (Use, See
also, General Reference) should be used.
·
Use term
guides user to the preferred term e.g.
·
See
also: This type of cross reference guides user to broad term, narrow term, and
related term
e.g. Access to Information
Narrow
term: Freedom of Information
Related term: Information Literacy,
Scholarly
Communication
·
The
General Reference: It directs the user to a group or category of headings
Authority Control
Along with the Descriptive and Subject Cataloging, “Authority Control” is also an important process of Cataloging. It
is concerned with the maintenance and application of standard access points of
terms. Thus, its purpose is to standardize and control a library’s use of
non-subject entries, subject headings, and their cross references. All Access
Points need to be under Authority/Access control, and is considered to be one
of the basic principles in Information Organization.
Major
Development:
In 1960s two major developments took place for bibliographic control: Machine-Readable Cataloging record (MARC),
and
The concept of shared, online cataloging system led the development of
standards for information exchange in the early 1970’s, such as ISO 2709 and
the MARC format. Along with the standards and format the agreement on rules
such as AACR and ISBD series, libraries became source of cataloging and
metadata for the world’s information. With the development of the MARC format
three major benefits for the libraries were identified.
1. Libraries were able to reduce their amount of
original cataloging as they started sharing records with each other.
2. Vendors could create online catalogs.
3. With the development of Z39.50 standard for
the electronic sharing of data, users could search web-based library catalog
from any part of the world.
This development has resulted into the concept of “Universal Bibliographic Control” (UBC) to the users. The primary purpose of UBC was
to organize and analyze documents. It refers to all possible means to have
access to surrogate records for all the world’s information packages. It is a
program under IFLA, which was expanded to UBCIM (Universal Bibliographic
Control and International MARC) to facilitate the exchange of bibliographic
records among the countries. It is a very important concept for bibliographers
and catalogers, which prevents duplication of work; allow libraries to better
share bibliographic resources and enables libraries to acquire reliable
cataloging data.
Forms of Library Catalog:
The cataloging is a vital access mechanism, which began centuries ago with the handwritten entries of manuscripts. Later on, various forms of the Library Catalog emerged like Book, Card, and Computer Output Microform (COM). Catalogs, today, are held as a computer database; usually called Digital Catalogs or Machine based bibliographic records or Online Public Access Catalog (OPAC).
Online Public Access Catalog
(OPAC):
OPAC is considered to be a new form of Cataloging. The
records within the earlier Catalogs are arranged in some order to make it more
usable. There were mainly two basic arrangements, classified and alphabetical
order. As the filing of the Cataloging becomes more complicated due to increase
in size, divided catalog came into existence. The divided catalog was easier
and less expensive but with the development of OPACs in 1980s, the divided
catalog was converted to online catalog. Online Catalogs are surrogate records,
which are commonly encoded in MARC format, a standard that permits sharing
among other institutions. Now, OPACs are predominant form of Catalog in the
Currently, OPACs are in the third generation. The first generation was created in 1980s, where card catalogs were automated e.g. DIALOG or MEDLINE. In 1992, the second generation of OPAC came into existence, where access points, search capabilities, and display options were improved. The third generation OPAC which began in 1996, has web interfaces, hypertext browsing, graphical user interfaces, and Z 39.50 compliant communication protocol. Thus, OPAC has facilitated rapid and effective access to the desired items in the collection where the user knows the author, title, or subject headings of the item. However, it has also been realized that the present generation of online catalog in most library do not provide topical or subject access to the collection.
Study
on OPAC:
The article on the “Research on the use of Online Catalogs and its
implication for library practice” by David Lewis highlights studies of card
catalog use in 1960s and early 1970s. The studies were compared with the use of
OPAC studies and were concluded to create a more effective tool for library
users. The Council on Library Research (CLR) in 1981-83 founded a nationwide
study of online catalogs in Public, University and College Libraries. Some of
the significant results were:
·
Users
have a strong preference for OPAC.
·
Users
adapt themselves to the capabilities and limitations of the OPAC.
·
Users
need and would like to use better subject access.
The research on both card and OPAC concludes that
·
Users
have little knowledge about the structure of the catalog and find it complex.
·
Inconsistencies
in cataloging practices create confusion among users.
·
Users
are successful in conducting known-item searches.
·
Most of
the time, users have incomplete information while searching catalog, which
creates more frustration.
Thus, the research on OPAC has provided wealth of information on user
attitudes and behaviors. The Online Catalog is difficult to use because of
their complex design for searching. The studies have indicated that user
prefers online catalogs, but they show inadequacies in the areas of subject
access. They would like to enhance the subject access. The Catalog, whether
online or card, is considered to be a primary tool for finding information in
the library collection. Though, OPAC overcomes the limitations of the earlier
forms of Catalog, and provide more techniques for searching the data, it also
adds a layer of complexity to the process, which directs the librarians to
create a more effective tool for the library users.
Digital Library:
Since 1990 the information world
is expanding dramatically, and the use of Internet as well as the World Wide
Web is becoming more popular among the users. The technological progress has
changed the functions of traditional library, which has resulted into the birth
of Digital Library, or Virtual Library. It has
also impacted the changing role of libraries and librarians in organizing
digital information as well as challenges associated with it. Librarians
organize knowledge through the process of Subject Analysis and Cataloging.
There is a major challenge to develop a consistent method, which uniquely
identifies and retrieves the information in different formats.
Digital libraries focus more on access rather than collections. The
organization of a digital library will reflect the user’s needs by providing
support for searching and acquiring information. The new technique used is more
complex to the user, and requires extra training, assistance, and help.
In the paper-based information environment, Information Organization is
based on physical objects, while in networked digital world the information is
virtually endless. It is overwhelming for the librarians and
bibliographic catalogers to control the digital library. One of the major challenges
in digital libraries is cataloging of constantly changing Internet resources. With the inception of the MARC record,
librarians have created records faster. However, with the growth of web sites,
users expect cataloging of electronic resources and websites. A major challenge
in organizing and managing the websites has resulted into the new standard
called, “
|
MARC/AACR2R |
DC Elements |
|
MARC is an encoding
standard for AACR2R |
It’s content has been
encoded in HTML tags, XML, RDF etc. |
|
It consists of 8
areas for identifying information package. |